Spotlight on Police Reform

For generations, Black and brown Americans living in cities, towns and rural areas across the nation have rightfully been afraid of uniformed officers. Far too often, police officers engage in indefensible violence against the very people they are supposed to serve and protect. Read more.

Governor Andrew Cuomo’s executive order requires every police department in New York to implement reforms concerning the issues below. With this in mind, CSS created this database of insights and best practices to assist communities through this process.

Use the arrows to expand and collapse the categories below.

Use Of Force

Use of Force Policy Database, Police Use of Force Project

Examining the Role of Use of Force Policies in Ending Police Violence by Samuel Sinyangwe

Police Use of Force, National Institute of Justice

Overview of Police Use of Force, National Institute of Justice

Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices by U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

Police Violence, Use of Force Policies, and Public Health by Osagie K. Obasogie and Zachary Newman, American Journal of Law & Medicine

Use of Force Policy Guidelines, NYU School of Law Policing Project

Use of Force guidelines, Camden County Police Department

Principles of Law: Use of Force, NYU School of Law Policing Project

Police Use of Excessive Force: A Conciliation Handbook for the Police and the Community, U.S. Department of Justice

National Use-Of-Force Data Collection, FBI

Contacts Between Police and the Public, 2015 by Eilzabeth Davis, Anthony Whyde, and Lynn Langton, U.S. Department of Justice

A Tactical Fourth Amendment by Brandon L. Garrett and Seth W. Stoughton, Virginia Law Review

Procedural Justice

Procedural Justice resources, Center for Court Innovation

Procedural Justice, U.S. Department of Justice

Principles of Procedurally Just Policing by Megan Quattlebaum, Tracey Meares, and Tom Tyler, The Justice Collaboratory at Yale Law School

Rethinking Procedural Justice: Perceptions, Attitudes, and Framing by Matthew D. Kenyon, The Police Chief

Community Policing and Procedural Justice, George Mason University Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy

Procedural Justice Training Reduces Police Use of Force and Complaints Against Officers by George Wood, Tom R. Tyler, and Andrew V. Papachristos, National Academy of Sciences

Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy: Using Training as a Foundation for Strengthening Community-Police Relationships by Daniela Gilbert, Stewart Wakeling, Vaughn Crandall, California Partnership for Safe Communities

Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy, State of California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training

Policing and Procedural Justice: Shaping Citizens' Identities to Increase Democratic Participation by Tracey Meares, Northwestern University Law Review

Procedural Justice in Policing: How the Process of Justice Impacts Public Attitudes and Law Enforcement Outcomes by Emma Peterson, Jessica Reichert, and Kaitlyn Konefal, Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority

Procedural Justice: How a Simple Concent Can Help Cops Make a Big Impact by Mariano Delle Donne, Police1 by Lexipol

Procedural Justice Training for Law Enforcement Officers, U.S. Department of Justice

Studies Addressing Systemic Racial Bias Or Racial Justice In Policing

Black and Blue: Exploring Racial Bias and Law Enforcement in the Killings of Unarmed Black Male Civilians by Alsion V. Hall, Erika V. Hall, and Jamie Perry, Cornell University School of Hotel Administration

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States by Robert J. Sampson and Janet L. Lauritsen, Crime and Justice

Policing and Race: Disparate Treatment, Perceptions, and Policy Responses by Kimberly Barsamian Kahn and Karin D. Martin, Social Issues and Policy Review

Race and the Justice Workforce: Toward a System Perspective by Geoff K. Ward

Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System: Prevalence, Causes, and a Search for Solutions by Margaret Bull Kovera, Journal of Social Issues

Minorities and the Juvenile Justice System by Carl E. Pope

Why Police Kill Black Males with Impunity: Applying Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to Address the Determinants of Policing Behaviors and “Justifiable” Homicides in the USA by Keon L. Gilbert and Rashawn Ray, Journal of Urban Health

A Resource Guide on Racial Profiling Data Collection Systems, U.S. Department of Justice

Reducing Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: A Manual for Practitioners and Policymakers, The Sentencing Project

Policing in Black & White by Kirsten Weir, American Psychological Association

Why Statistics Don’t Capture The Full Extent Of The Systemic Bias In Policing by Laura Bronner, FiveThirtyEight

Systemic Racial Bias in the Criminal Justice System Is Not a Myth by Brandon Vaidyanathan, Public Discourse

Implicit Racial Bias and the Anatomy of Institutional Racism by Jules Holroyd, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies

How to Reform American Police, According to Experts by German Lopez, Vox

Funding Recommendations to Address Systemic Racial Inequities in Policing and Criminal Justice, Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors

Race, Ethnicity, and the Criminal Justice System by Katherine J. Rosick, American Sociological Association

Implicit Bias and Policing by Katherine B. Spencer, Amanda K. Charbonneau, and Jack Glaser, Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Bias-Free Policing, International Association of Chiefs of Police

Implicit Bias Awareness Training

Implicit Bias Module Series, Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity

Implicit Bias Awareness and Crisis De-Escalation Courses, Silver State Consulting Group

Can Cops Unlearn Their Unconscious Biases? by Tom James, The Altantic

Implicit Bias resource database, Truth & Justice

Implicit Bias Training for Police Officers is Big Business by Meghan McCarty Carino, Marketplace

We Asked 155 Police Departments About Their Racial Bias Training. Here's What They Told Us, CBS News

Addressing the Elephant in the Room by Renée J. Mitchell and Lois James, The Poice Chief

Influence of Implicit-Bias Training on the Cultural Competency of Police Officers by Marvin Whitfield, Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Implicit Bias Awareness Training by Lorie A. Fridell, Fair & Impartial Policing

Curbing Implicit Bias: What Works and What Doesn't by Betsy Mason, Discover Magazine

De-escalation Tranining and Practices

Integrating De-escalation Techniques into Policing by Christopher L. McFarlin, In Public Safety

Verbal De-Escalation Training for Police by Terry Vittone, Crisis Prevention Institute

A Practical Overview of De-Escalation Skills in Law Enforcement: Helping Individuals in Crisis While Reducing Police Liability and Injury by Janet R. Olivia, Rhiannon Morgan, and Michael T. Compton, Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations

Does de‐escalation training work? by Robin S. Engel, Hannah D. McManus, and Tamara D. Herold, Criminology & Public Policy

Moving Beyond “Best Practice”: Experiences in Police Reform and a Call for Evidence to Reduce Officer-Involved Shootings by Robin S. Engel, Hannah D. McManus, and Gabrielle T. Isaza, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

De-Escalation in Police-Citizen Encounters: A Mixed Methods Study of a Misunderstood Policing Strategy by Natalie Todak, Doctoral Dissertation - Arizona State University

The Deafening Demand for De-escalation Training: A Systematic Review and Call for Evidence in Police Use of Force Reform by Robin S. Engel, Hannah D. McManus, and Tamara D. Herold, International Association of Chiefs of Police

A Systematic Social Observation Study of Police De-Escalation Tactics by Natalie Todak and Lois James, Police Quarterly

De-Escalation in Policing: Preliminary Answers to Key Questions by Natalie Todak and Madison March, excerpted from Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings

Reducing Fatal Police Shootings as System Crashes: Research, Theory, and Practice by Lawrence W. Sherman, Annual Review of Criminology

Using Body-Worn Cameras to Create an Evidence Based De-escalation Training Program by Natalie Todak, excerpted from Evidence Based Policing

Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) Programs

What is LEAD?, The LEAD National Support Bureau

LEAD: Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion, National Institute of Corrections

What is LEAD?, The City of Albany

Discretion and Diversion in Albany’s LEAD Program by Robert E. Worden and Sarah J. McLean, Criminal Justice Policy Review

Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD): Reducing the Role of Criminalization in Local Drug Control, Drug Policy Alliance

Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD): Program effects on recidivism outcomes by Susan E. Collins, Heather S. Lonczak, and Seema L. Clifasefi, Evolution and Program Planning

Seattle's Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion Program: Lessons Learned From the First Two Years by Katherine Beckett

San Francisco LEAD Fidelity Assessment by Dina Perrone, Aili Malm, Erica Magana, and Elijah Bueno, CSU Long Beach

Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion: A Worthy Reform? by Harris Rosenblum, USC

Diversion From the Criminal Justice System: The "LEAD" Program in the United States by Caroline Buhse and Adam Schaffer

Pre-Arrest Diversion (PAD): Emerging Issues and Example Policy Responses by Jac Charlier, TASC & Center for Health and Justice

A Guide to Implementing Police-Based Diversion Programs for People with Mental Illness by Melissa Reuland, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

Restorative Justice Practices

Tutorial: Introduction to Restorative Justice, Center for Justice & Reconciliation

Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Principles in Juvenile Justice: A Meta-Analysis by David B. Wilson, Ajima Olaghere, and Catherine S. Kimbrell, George Mason University

Law Enforcement, Restorative Justice Colorado

Restorative Justice and Procedural Justice – Two Sides of the Community Policing Coin by Kenneth A. Bouche, Hillard Heintze

Restorative Policing by Supt. Mel Lofty, Thames Valley Police

What is Restorative Justice?, Community Justice Network of Vermont

Implementing Restorative Justice in Police Departments by Leanne F. Alarid and Carlos D. Montemayor, Police Practice and Research

Restorative Justice Practices by Michelle Perin, Officer.com

Strengthening Ties Between Police and the Community: A Conversation about Restorative Justice in Madison, Wisconsin, Center for Court Innovation

Incorporating Restorative and Community Justice Into American Sentencing and Corrections by Leena Kurki, Sentencing and Corrections

Police Reform, Restorative Justice and Restorative Policing by Gordon Bazemore and Curt Griffiths, Police Practice and Research

Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative Justice by Caroline G. Nicholl, U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services

Developing Restorative Justice in Law, Policy and Practice: Learning From Around the World by Ian D. Marder, Penal Reform International

Handbook on Restorative Justice Programmes, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Restorative Justice and Policing, Restorative Justice Council

Guide for Implementing the Balanced and Restorative Justice Model, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Justice System & Human Services, Restorative Solutions

An Inventory and Examination of Restorative Justice Practices for Youth in Illinois by Kimberly S. Burke, Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority

Restorative Justice in the States: An Analysis of Statutory Legislation and Policy by Sandra Pavelka, Justice Policy Journal

Community-Based Outreach and Conflict Resolution

Collaborative Policing, NYPD

Police Reform Through Community-Based Policing: Philosophy and Guidelines for Implementation by Hesta Groenewald and Gordon Peake, International Peace Academy

Keeping the Peace in Space: A Neighborhood Model for a Community-Based, Conflict-Resolution-Oriented Justice System by Donald M. Scott, From Antarctica to Outer Space

Evaluating the Impact of Conflict Resolution on Urban Children's Violence-Related Attitudes and Behaviors in New Haven, Connecticut, Through a Community-Academic Partnership by Kerem Shuval, Charles A. Pillsbury, Brenda Cavanaugh, La'Rie McGruder, Christy M. McKinney, Zohar Massey, and Nora E. Groce, Health Education Research

Police-Community Conflict and Crime Prevention in Cincinnati, Ohio by John E. Eck and Jay Rothman, Public Security and Police Reform in the Americas

Community-Police Complaint Mediation Project: A Review Paper by Astrid Birgden and Julio Lopez-Varona

Principles of Good Policing: Avoiding Violence Between Police and Citizens, U.S. Department of Justice Community Relations Service

Engaging Communities as Partners: Strategies for Problem Solving, PolicyLink

The Challenge and Promise of Using Community Policing Strategies to Prevent Violent Extremism: A Call for Community Partnerships with Law Enforcement to Enhance Public Safety by David Schanzer, Charles Kurzman, Jessica Toliver, and Elizabeth Miller, Triange Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security

Lessons to Advance Community Policing by Tammy Felix, Carrie Shelton, Tom Woodmansee, and Juliana Pearson, U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services

Community Policing and Countering Violent Extremism, CVE Curriculum Working Group

Community-Oriented Policing in United Nations Peace Operations, United Nations Peace Operations

Developing Appropriate Dispute Resolution Systems for Law Enforcement and Community Relations: The Pasadena Case Study by Najeeba Syeed-Miller

The Process of Peace: Using Community Dispute Resolution to Improve the Relationship Between Police and Community in Minnesota by Kelsey Schwarzrock, Mitchell Hamline Law Journal of Public Policy and Practice

To Hold Police Accountable, Ax the Arbitrators, New York Times Editorial Board

Problem-Oriented Policing

Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing

Problem-Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Places: A Randomized Controlled Experiment by Anthony A. Braga, David L. Weisburd, Elin J. Waring, Lorraine Green Mazerolle, William Spelman, and Francis Gajewski, Criminology

Problem-Oriented Policing, Deterrence, and Youth Violence: An Evaluation of Boston's Operation Ceasefire by Anthony A. Braga, David M. Kennedy, Elin J. Waring, and Anne Morrison Piehl, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency

Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years by Michael S. Scott, U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services

Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention by Anthony A. Braga

Problem-Oriented Policing: The Disconnect Between Principles and Practice by Anthony A. Braga and David Weisburd, Police Innovation: Contrasting Perspectives

Problem-Oriented Policing and Drug-Market Locations: Three Case Studies by Timothy J. Hope, University of Manchester

On Further Developing Problem-Oriented Policing: The Most Critical Need, The Major Impediments, and a Proposal by Herman Goldstein, University of Wisconsin

Modern Approaches to Policing: Community, Problem-Oriented and Intelligence-Led by Nick Tilley, Handbook of Policing

Repeat Victimization and Hot Spots: The Overlap and its Implications for Crime Control and Problem-Oriented Policing by Graham Farrell and William Sousa, Repeat Victimization

Problem-Oriented Policing, RAND Corporation

Problem-Oriented Policing, National Gang Center

Effects of Problem-Oriented Policing on Crime and Disorder by David Weisburd, Cody Telep, Joshua Hinkle, and John Eck

What is Problem-Oriented Policing, George Mason University Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy

Community- and Problem-Oriented Policing, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

The Use and Effectiveness of Problem-Oriented Policing by Dan Brandon, Inquiries Journal

Hot Spots Policing

Practice Profile: Hot Spots Policing, National Insitute of Justice

Hot Spots Policing, College of Policing

The Importance of Legitimacy in Hot Spots Policing, U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services

Hot Spots Policing, George Mason University Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy

Hot Spots Policing by Tammy Kochel and Seyvan Nouri, Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology

Program Profile: Hot Spots Policing (Lowell, Mass.), National Institute of Justice

The Crime Prevention Value of Hot Spots Policing by Anthony A. Braga, Psicothema

Hot Spots Policing and Crime Prevention Strategies: Ongoing Research by Leighton Walter Kille, Journalist's Resource

Hot Spots Policing and Crime Reduction: An Update of an Ongoing Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by Anthony A. Braga, Brandon S. Turchan, Andrew V. Papachristos, and David M. Hureau, Journal of Experimental Criminology

Hot-Spot Policing and the Use of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by Heather L. Merigan, Regis University

Focused Deterrence

The Rebirth of Community Policing: A Case Study of Access by Deborah S. DeMeester, Donald R. LaMagdeleine and Cari Norton, University of St. Thomas

Focused Deterrence Strategies, County Health Rankings & Roadmaps

Focused Deterrence Strategies by Anthony Braga, Criminology and Criminal Justice

Pulling Levers Focused Deterrence Strategies to Prevent Crime by Anthony A. Braga and David L. Weisburd, U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services

Focused Deterrence: A Policing Strategy to Combat Gun Violence by Jessica Reichert, Vernon Smith, Sharyn Adams, Lily Gleicher, Laurel Hill, and Justin Escamilla, Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority

Focused Deterrence Strategies and Crime Control by Anthony A. Braga, David L. Weisburd, and Brandon Turchan, American Society of Criminology

Focused Deterrence Interventions: A Critical Review, EBP Society

Focused Deterrence Strategies: Podcast with Anthony A. Braga, Vera Institute

Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Focused Deterrence in Depth, RAND Corporation

Director’s Message: Proactive Policing — What We Know and What We Don’t Know, Yet by David Muhlhausen, National Institute of Justice

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

Effectiveness of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in Reducing Robberies by Carri Casteel and Corinne Peek-Asa, American Journal of Preventive Medicine

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED): A Review and Modern Bibliography by Paul Michael Cozens, Greg Saville, and David Hillier, Property Management

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by Paul Cozens, Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis

Planning, Development Designs and Crime by Patricia L. Brantingham

Validating Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Construct Through Checklist Using Structural Equation Modelling by Massoomeh Hedayati Marzbalia, Aldrin Abdullaha, Nordin Abd. Razakb, Mohammad Javad, and Maghsoodi Tilakia, International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice

International CPTED Association, International CPTED Association

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Guidebook, National Crime Prevention Council

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by Robert A. Gardner

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, Los Angeles Police Department

Violence Prevention and Reduction Interventions

List of Evidence-Based Crime and Violence Prevention and Intervention Practices, The VCU Center on Society and Health

Creating Safe Environments: Violence Prevention Strategies and Programs by Patti Culross, Larry Cohen, Ashby Wolfe, and Joanne Ruby, Prevention Institute

Prevention Strategies, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Violence Prevention, Youth.gov

Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General, Office of the Surgeon General

The Multisite Violence Prevention Project, American Journal of Preventive Medicine

The Effectiveness of School-Based Violence Prevention Programs for Reducing Disruptive and Aggressive Behavior by Sandra Jo Wilson and Mark W. Lipsey, National Institute of Justice

National Youth Violence Prevention Update, U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs

Violent Crime: Risk Models, Effective Interventions and Risk Management by Jennifer Rubin, Federico Gallo, and Adam Coutts, RAND Corporation

Strategies, Resources, and Contacts for Developing Comprehensive School Violence Prevention Programs, Prevention Institute

Community-Based Violence Prevention Partnership Toolkit, The City of Indianapolis

Neighborhood Interventions to Reduce Violence by Michelle C. Kondo, Elena Andreyeva, Eugenia C. South, John M. MacDonald, and Charles C. Branas, Annual Review of Public Health

A Framework for Prevention and Intervention Strategies: Incorporating Violent Extremism Into Violence Prevention Efforts, United States Attorney's Office District of Massachusetts

The Impact of Local Violence Intervention Programs, Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund

Violence Prevention, American Institues for Research

Community Violence Prevention, Intervention, and Suppression by Megan Alderden, Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority

Intervention Strategies, Giffords Law Center